Testimony
    
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Authorities
Citing experts or authorities to bring credibility to one's argument.
Examples
 

We who are religious should think twice before disparaging science, for in many ways their work is a work of great faith. As Albert Einstein once said, "the serious scientific workers are the only profoundly religious people."
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  • Persuasive Appeals: Ethos
    Appealing to authorities is a principal method for establishing ethos.
  • Progymnasmata: Chreia
    This rhetorical exercise amplifies an anecdote based on the words or deeds of an authoritative figure.
  • Progymnasmata: Proverb
    Directions for this rhetorical exercise include supporting the saying by referring to authoritative testimony.
 
Witnesses
Calling upon a person or person's who have personally seen or experienced something to lend credibility to one's argument.
Examples
 

We might ask Catherine Jensen about the need for new safety measures at NASA. She is not an engineer, nor a rocket scientist. She was simply one of the many spectators in that elementary school classroom who saw both the space shuttle explode and the empty look on the children's faces as they realized their teacher was killed
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Maxims or Proverbs
The use of a famous saying, precept, or pithy generalization either to open or lend credibility to one's argument.
Examples
 

That the tax refund will be ill spent is as sure as the fact that a fool and his money are soon parted.
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  • commonplace
  • Progymnasmata: Chreia
    This rhetorical exercise amplifies an anecdote based on the words (or deeds) of an authoritative figure.
  • Progymnasmata: Proverb
    This rhetorical exercise includes directions for how to amplify a proverb.
 
Rumors
Of greater significance historically than today, reference to rumors is still a viable technique for suggesting what one cannot or chooses not to prove directly. This is often used to discredit others.
Examples
 

For several months it has been no secret among WordPerfect employees that Novell had never intended to do anything but dismantle the once robust company
 
Oaths
Of more persuasive force in societies that placed greater importance upon one keeping one's word than ours, oaths are still employed in persuasive circumstances, especially in legal settings.
Examples
 

How can you maintain that the LAPD had not prepared for the possible outcome of the Rodney King trial? According to this sworn affidavit of June 11, 1992, the police chief had instructed his officers that they needed to prepare for civil unrest
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Documents
Referring to written proof to make one's case.
Examples
 

Look, I may be only four feet tall and have the appearance of being a prepubescent trouble-maker, but you have to sell me that case of beer because my driver's license—as you can plainly see right there—says I'm 45.
 
Law
Drawing upon statutes, contracts, testaments, legal records, etc. in order to substantiate or refute a claim.
Examples
 

Your idea for Coming to America, Mr. Murphy, would have been perfectly fine, if your source for it had not violated the statues in Title XVII of the U.S. Code regarding copyright.
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Precedent
Either making reference to a past judicial decision or (more generally) referring to the past to substantiate a claim or interpretation in the present.
Examples
 

Mr. Simpson admits to having beat his wife in the past. Is it so unreasonable that this pattern of violence would have continued, even escalated?
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The Supernatural
Calling upon God or appealing to an authority beyond the rational or natural in order to be convincing.
Examples
 

"I know that the Democrats are right, for God's spirit tells me in my heart."
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  Sources: Cic. Top. 19.73-78
 


Creative Commons License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
Gideon O. Burton, Brigham Young University
Please cite "Silva Rhetoricae" (rhetoric.byu.edu)

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