Topics of Invention    All

Cause and Effect A topic of invention in which one considers the effects of a given cause or the causes contributing to given effects.
Examples
	In Jonathan Swift's A Modest Proposal, he argues from effect, indicating what the results would be if his ironic proposal to sell Irish children for food were to be accepted: For first, it would greatly lessen the number of papists, with whom we are yearly overrun, being the principal breeders of the nation as well as our most dangerous enemies...etc.
Related Figures
	apagoresis enumeratio
See Also
	Figures of Reasoning Branches of Oratory: Deliberative Cause and Effect is a topic commonly employed in deliberative or legislative oratory in which the effects of proposed plans or laws are weighed. Branches of Oratory: Judicial Cause and Effect is a topic commonly employed in judicial or forensic oratory as the causes of present effects (such as a crime) are investigated.
	Sources:	Cic. Top. 3.22-23, 15.58-18.67

Antecedent and Consequence Very similar to cause and effect, this topic of invention invites one to consider events or consequences that follow given actions or conditions. The difference is that what follows may not be caused by what preceded it, but will naturally flow from those earlier conditions. Given a certain situation (the antecedent), what is likely to follow (the consequence)? This often takes the form of an "if...then" compound sentence, and is closely associated with the form of reasoning typical in rhetoric, the enthymeme.
Examples
	Since Louisa Franklin was not Paul Franklin's legal wife when he died, she isn't entitled to any of his Blue Oyster Cult record collection. If students violated the dress code, then they should suffer the consequences.
Related Figures
	apagoresis cataplexis Figures of Reasoning
See Also
	Branches of Oratory: Deliberative Antecedent and Consequence is a topic commonly employed in deliberative or legislative oratory in which the consequences of proposed plans or laws are weighed. Circumstances: Past Fact / Future Fact Antecedent and Consequence is closely related to this topic of invention which considers the relationship, often consequential in nature, between past and present or future.
	Sources:	Cic. Top. 3.19-20

Contraries A topic of invention in which one considers opposite or incompatible things that are of the same kind (if they are of different kinds, the topic of similarity / difference is more appropriate). Because contraries occur in pairs and exclude one another, they are useful in arguments because one can establish one's case indirectly, proving one's own assertion by discrediting the contrary. This is sometimes known as the figure of thought, antitheton.
Examples
	Self-control is beneficial because licentiousness is harmful. If war is the cause of our misery, peace is the way to promote our happiness
Related Figures
	Figures of Irony Figures of Reasoning contrarium enantiosis synoeciosis antitheton in utrumque partes antithesis antiphrasis
See Also
	Progymnasmata: Commonplace It was often suggested one begin this rhetorical exercise by employing a contrary or contradiction. in utrumque partes Arguing both sides of an issue.
	Sources:	Cic. Top. 3.17, 11.47-51

Contradictions Unlike the topic "contraries," "contradictions" deals with denial rather than opposition. (For example, in response to the assertion "the preacher was white" one is using the topic of contraries in saying "the preacher was black"; but the topic of contradiction in saying "the preacher was not white" [the preacher could have been of a third race]). This topic is useful for setting up an issue (see "stasis") and often takes the form of an either / or proposition.
Examples
	Some people maintain that the Constitution guarantees the right of every citizen to own a gun; others maintain that the Constitution states no such right. Either she is willing to make the kelp ice cream, or she is not.
Related Figures
	Figures of Reasoning Figures of Refutation inter se pugnantia antiphrasis antilogy
See Also
	Progymnasmata: Commonplace It was often suggested one begin this rhetorical exercise by employing a contrary or contradiction. in utrumque partes Arguing both sides of an issue.
	Sources:	Cic. Top. 3.20